Bandung, West Java – The founding of Muhammadiyah, one of Indonesia’s largest Islamic organizations, was driven by a more expansive vision than merely combating superstition, heresy, and polytheism (Tahayul, Bid’ah, dan Khurafat – TBC). This nuanced perspective was articulated by Abdul Mu’ti, the General Secretary of Muhammadiyah’s Central Leadership (PP Muhammadiyah), during a recent Silaturahmi and Pengajian Ba’da Idulfitri 1447 H event held at RS Muhammadiyah Bandung. The gathering, organized by the Muhammadiyah Family of West Java, served as a platform for deep reflection on the organization’s foundational principles and enduring mission. Mu’ti emphasized that Muhammadiyah emerged primarily as a comprehensive response to the pervasive social, religious, and political challenges gripping Indonesian society at the turn of the 20th century, rather than being singularly focused on theological purification.

Mu’ti meticulously outlined the multi-faceted problems that necessitated Muhammadiyah’s establishment. He asserted, "Muhammadiyah was founded because a vast segment of society was backward due to ignorance. Muhammadiyah was founded because widespread poverty plagued the community. Muhammadiyah was founded due to rampant societal divisions, and Muhammadiyah was founded in response to the proliferation of stagnation (kejumudan)." These profound societal ailments, rather than just theological deviations, formed the core impetus for Kiai Ahmad Dahlan’s groundbreaking initiative. This reinterpretation offers a broader and more holistic understanding of Muhammadiyah’s historical trajectory, positioning it not merely as a religious reform movement, but as a pioneering force for comprehensive societal development.

The insights shared by Mu’ti are not mere conjecture but are rooted in historical documentation. He revealed that his understanding is drawn from the writings of Kiai Sudja’, one of Kiai Ahmad Dahlan’s closest students, alongside other corroborating and relevant literary sources. These primary accounts provide an invaluable window into the founder’s true motivations and the socio-political landscape that shaped his vision. Consequently, the birth of Muhammadiyah is understood as a pragmatic solution to the myriad problems confronting the Muslim community and society at large during that critical historical juncture. Given Kiai Dahlan’s profound expertise as a religious scholar, it was natural that his chosen approach to addressing these issues was fundamentally religious in nature, yet profoundly practical in its application. Mu’ti explained, "The root of these various problems lay in how religion was understood, and how that understanding influenced the behavior and culture of society at that time." This highlights the intricate connection between religious interpretation, societal norms, and practical living, which Kiai Dahlan sought to reform.

Historical Context: The Dawn of the 20th Century in Nusantara

To fully appreciate Muhammadiyah’s origins, it is crucial to understand the grim reality of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The archipelago was firmly under colonial subjugation, characterized by systemic exploitation, severe socio-economic disparities, and political oppression. The indigenous population, particularly Muslims, faced immense challenges.

• Colonial Exploitation and Socio-Economic Disparity: Dutch policies were designed to extract resources and maintain control, leading to widespread poverty among the native population. Land ownership was often concentrated in the hands of the colonial administration or favored elites, and economic opportunities for indigenous people were severely limited. A rigid social hierarchy placed Europeans at the apex, followed by Chinese and other foreign orientals, with the indigenous population at the bottom. This structure perpetuated economic disadvantage and social stagnation.
• Educational Deprivation: Access to education for native Indonesians was severely restricted and discriminatory. The colonial government provided a rudimentary education system, primarily "Sekolah Ongko Loro" (equivalent to primary school), for the masses. Higher education was an exclusive privilege, largely reserved for three distinct groups: European expatriates, the indigenous aristocratic class (priyayi) who often served as intermediaries for the Dutch, and a select few from economically affluent native families who could afford private schooling. The vast majority of the population remained illiterate or received only basic religious instruction, which, while valuable, often lacked a modern, scientific orientation. This educational inequality was a significant barrier to social mobility and intellectual development, contributing directly to the "ignorance" and "stagnation" that Mu’ti cited.
• Religious Landscape and Societal Stagnation: The practice of Islam in the archipelago at the time was often characterized by a blend of orthodox teachings, local animistic beliefs, and Hindu-Buddhist influences, leading to various forms of syncretism. While deeply spiritual, this traditional interpretation sometimes fostered a static approach to problem-solving, with a strong emphasis on unquestioning adherence to inherited practices (taqlid) rather than independent reasoning (ijtihad). This intellectual inertia, or kejumudan, as Mu’ti termed it, hindered progress and adaptability in the face of modern challenges. Furthermore, religious differences, even within Islam, sometimes fueled disunity, making collective action for societal betterment difficult.

Kiai Ahmad Dahlan: A Visionary Leader Responding to His Time

Kiai Ahmad Dahlan (born Muhammad Darwis, 1868-1923) was a deeply observant and intellectually curious scholar from Kauman, Yogyakarta, a traditional Islamic quarter. His multiple pilgrimages to Mecca (which was then part of the Ottoman Empire) exposed him to the burgeoning reformist movements in the Middle East, particularly the ideas of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida. These thinkers advocated for a return to the pristine teachings of Islam as found in the Qur’an and Sunnah, emphasizing rational inquiry, social justice, and modernization.

Upon his return to Java, Kiai Dahlan observed firsthand the profound discrepancies between the ideals of Islam and the realities of his society. He saw communities mired in poverty, ignorance, and disunity. He recognized that while doctrinal purity was important, it was insufficient without practical application to uplift the community. His vision was holistic: to revive Islam’s dynamism not just through theological reform, but through concrete actions that addressed the root causes of societal backwardness. He understood that superficial fixes would fail; true transformation required empowering individuals through knowledge and improving their material conditions.

The Genesis of Muhammadiyah: Beyond Doctrinal Purity

Mu’ti’s argument aligns with a more contemporary understanding of Muhammadiyah’s origins, moving beyond the simplistic narrative that portrays it solely as an anti-TBC movement. While Kiai Dahlan certainly aimed to purify Islamic practices from elements he considered non-Islamic or superstitious, this was intrinsically linked to his broader goal of societal advancement. He believed that correct religious understanding would lead to ethical behavior, critical thinking, and a drive for progress.

The prevalence of Tahayul (superstition), Bid’ah (religious innovations without basis in original texts), and Khurafat (myths or irrational beliefs) was indeed a concern for Kiai Dahlan. He saw these practices as not only deviating from authentic Islamic teachings but also as contributing to intellectual stagnation and a fatalistic worldview that hindered progress. For example, relying on mystical amulets rather than modern medicine, or believing in supernatural explanations for natural phenomena rather than seeking scientific understanding, directly impacted public health and education. Therefore, while combating TBC was an aspect of his reformist agenda, it was a means to an end: fostering a rational, dynamic, and progressive Muslim community capable of self-improvement and contributing to national development. His approach was not an abstract theological debate but a practical application of religious principles to solve real-world problems.

Education as the Cornerstone: Qismul Arqa and Beyond

The most compelling evidence supporting Mu’ti’s reinterpretation lies in Kiai Dahlan’s initial and most significant action: the establishment of educational institutions. This fact is profoundly significant and often overlooked. The first educational body founded by Kiai Dahlan, named Qismul Arqa, was established in his own home in 1911. This predates the official founding of Muhammadiyah as an organization, which occurred on November 18, 1912. This chronological sequence strongly reinforces the argument that education was not merely one of Muhammadiyah’s activities but its very first and most fundamental strategic pillar.

Mu’ti emphatically stated, "This, in my opinion, further strengthens the argument: why was education the solution? Kiai Dahlan saw that society’s backwardness stemmed from a lack of education." The pervasive illiteracy and limited access to quality education were indeed the root causes of many interconnected problems. Ignorance bred poverty by limiting opportunities, fostered kejumudan by stifling critical thought, and contributed to unhealthy living practices due to a lack of knowledge about hygiene and sanitation. The colonial education system, as previously noted, was deliberately restrictive for the indigenous population. Kiai Dahlan recognized this systemic barrier and understood that true liberation and progress for his people could only come through equitable and comprehensive education that combined religious instruction with modern sciences.

Muhammadiyah’s educational model was revolutionary for its time. It integrated religious studies with secular subjects (mathematics, science, history, geography), which was a radical departure from traditional pesantren (Islamic boarding schools) and colonial schools. This holistic curriculum aimed to produce individuals who were not only pious but also intellectually capable, socially responsible, and equipped with the skills necessary to navigate and contribute to the modern world. The establishment of schools became the blueprint for Muhammadiyah’s future expansion, demonstrating a deep-seated belief in the transformative power of knowledge.

Amal Usaha Muhammadiyah (AUM): The Practical Embodiment of Reform

The early success and expansion of Muhammadiyah were largely driven by its unique organizational strategy: the establishment of Amal Usaha Muhammadiyah (AUM), or Muhammadiyah Charitable Enterprises. These were not merely theoretical initiatives but tangible institutions designed to directly address societal needs. While schools were the pioneering AUMs, the model quickly expanded to include other critical sectors:

• Healthcare: Muhammadiyah established hospitals, clinics, and polyclinics, providing affordable and accessible healthcare to a population that largely lacked it. This was a direct response to widespread disease and poor public health infrastructure, linking religious teachings about cleanliness and welfare to practical medical services.
• Social Welfare: Orphanages, homes for the elderly, and poverty alleviation programs were also established, reflecting Islam’s emphasis on caring for the vulnerable and less fortunate. These institutions provided vital safety nets in a society where state welfare was virtually nonexistent.
• Economic Empowerment: While less prominent initially, Muhammadiyah also explored cooperative models and economic initiatives to uplift the community economically, understanding that poverty was a major impediment to holistic human development.

The AUM model represented a pragmatic and institutionalized approach to social reform. Instead of relying solely on sermons or political agitation, Muhammadiyah built a parallel social infrastructure that directly served the needs of the people. This hands-on, service-oriented approach allowed the organization to gain widespread trust and support, fostering a sense of self-reliance and community empowerment among Indonesians during the colonial era.

Sources and Scholarly Insights

The reliance on Kiai Sudja’s writings as a primary source lends significant credibility to Mu’ti’s argument. Kiai Sudja’, being a close disciple, would have had intimate knowledge of Kiai Dahlan’s thoughts, struggles, and motivations. Such internal historical accounts often provide richer, more nuanced perspectives than external observations or later interpretations. Modern historical scholarship on Muhammadiyah increasingly corroborates this view, highlighting the organization’s multifaceted approach to reform that encompassed education, social welfare, and religious purification, all intertwined within a broader framework of national awakening. Historians often point to Muhammadiyah’s proactive engagement with modern institutions and its emphasis on practical action as key differentiators from other contemporary movements.

Broader Impact and Enduring Legacy

Muhammadiyah’s founding principles, as elucidated by Abdul Mu’ti, have had a profound and lasting impact on Indonesian society.

• Contribution to National Awakening: By empowering Indonesians through education and social services, Muhammadiyah played a crucial role in fostering a sense of national identity and capability during the colonial period. Its schools produced generations of leaders, thinkers, and professionals who contributed significantly to the struggle for independence and nation-building.
• Modernization of Indonesian Islam: Muhammadiyah’s emphasis on ijtihad (independent reasoning), rationalism, and engagement with modernity helped to reshape the landscape of Indonesian Islam. It encouraged Muslims to critically engage with their faith and apply its principles to contemporary challenges, moving away from rigid traditionalism towards a more dynamic and progressive understanding.
• Vast Network of Social Services: Today, Muhammadiyah remains a colossal force in Indonesia’s social fabric. It operates an extensive network of thousands of educational institutions (from kindergartens to universities), hundreds of hospitals and clinics, and numerous orphanages and social welfare programs. This vast infrastructure is a testament to the enduring relevance of Kiai Dahlan’s original vision: addressing societal problems through practical, institutionalized action.
• Contemporary Relevance: In an era marked by complex global challenges, Muhammadiyah’s founding principles continue to guide its mission. Its focus on education as a tool for empowerment, healthcare as a fundamental right, and social justice as an Islamic imperative resonates strongly. The organization consistently adapts its strategies to address modern issues such as environmental sustainability, digital literacy, and interfaith dialogue, all while remaining true to its core commitment to holistic human development.

In conclusion, Abdul Mu’ti’s re-examination of Muhammadiyah’s genesis underscores its profound and multifaceted origins. It was not merely a reaction against specific theological deviations, but a comprehensive, institution-building movement born out of a deep concern for the widespread ignorance, poverty, disunity, and stagnation plaguing colonial Indonesia. Kiai Ahmad Dahlan’s visionary leadership, particularly his unwavering belief in education as the primary catalyst for change, laid the groundwork for an organization that would not only purify religious practices but, more importantly, uplift an entire nation through practical, compassionate, and progressive action. This enriched understanding ensures that Muhammadiyah’s historical narrative continues to inspire its ongoing mission to contribute meaningfully to the betterment of humanity.